New Insights for Understanding the Structural Deformation Style of the Strike-Slip Regime along the Wadi Shueib and Amman-Hallabat Structures in Jordan Based on Remote Sensing Data Analysis
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By Snježana Markušić 1, * , Davor Stanko 2 , Tvrtko Korbar 3 , Nikola Belić 3 , Davorin Penava 4 and Branko Kordić 3
On 22 March 2020, Zagreb was struck by an M5.5 earthquake that had been expected for more than 100 years and revealed all the failures in the construction of residential buildings in the Croatian capital, especially those built in the first half of the 20th century. Because of that, extensive seismological, geological, geodetic and structural engineering surveys were conducted immediately after the main shock. This study provides descriptions of damage, specifying the building performances and their correlation with the local soil characteristics, i.e., seismic motion amplification. Co-seismic vertical ground displacement was estimated, and the most affected area is identified according to Sentinel-1 interferometric wide-swath data. Finally, preliminary 3D structural modeling of the earthquake sequence was performed, and two major faults were modeled using inverse distance weight (IDW) interpolation of the grouped hypocenters. The first-order assessment of seismic amplification (due to site conditions) in the Zagreb area for the M5.5 earthquake shows that ground motions of approximately 0.16–0.19 g were amplified at least twice. The observed co-seismic deformation (based on Sentinel-1A IW SLC images) implies an approximately 3 cm uplift of the epicentral area that covers approximately 20 km
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. Based on the preliminary spatial and temporal analyses of the Zagreb 2020 earthquake sequence, the main shock and the first aftershocks evidently occurred in the subsurface of the Medvednica Mountains along a deep-seated southeast-dipping thrust fault, recognized as the primary (master) fault. The co-seismic rupture propagated along the thrust towards northwest during the first half-hour of the earthquake sequence, which can be clearly seen from the time-lapse visualization. The preliminary results strongly support one of the debated models of the active tectonic setting of the Medvednica Mountains and will contribute to a better assessment of the seismic hazard for the wider Zagreb area.
The city of Zagreb is the Croatian capital and is situated in the contact area of three major regional tectonic units: the Alps in the northwest, the Pannonian Basin in the east and the Dinarides in the south. The causes of earthquakes are tectonic movements that occur in the upper crust because of interactions between the underlying lithospheric plates: the European plate and the Adriatic microplate (e.g., see [1, 2, 3]). As a result of the compression and/or subduction of the plates, the upper crustal faults become seismic sources of earthquakes.
Earthquakes and seismic activity in the wider Zagreb area are not uncommon. At the end of the 19th century, Josip Mokrović [4], a well-known Croatian geophysicist, calculated that Zagreb had been shaken by earthquakes as many as 661 times from 1502 to 1883. The strongest earthquake in recent Zagreb history occurred in 1880 and has been estimated according to macroseismic observations at magnitude 6.3 [5]. However, the magnitude 5.5 earthquake that occurred on Sunday morning 22 March 2020 was the strongest instrumentally recorded seismic event in Zagreb since Andrija Mohorovičić established the first seismograph in 1908.
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The city is situated in the southern foothills of the Medvednica Mountains which are uplifted along the SW–NE-striking Žumberak–Medvednica–Kalnik fault zone. The earthquakes in the area are the result of the interface between crustal fragments bordered by active faults [6, 7]. Matoš et al. [8] concluded that the most tectonically active areas are located at the SW corner and in the central part of the Medvednica Mountains, where they are likely related to the longitudinal steeply southeast-dipping reverse faults and transversal strike-slip/normal faults, respectively.
The earthquake mechanisms reveal predominantly N–S directed P-axes in the study area that indicate the prevalence of compressional tectonics with reverse faulting [7]. These data are in agreement with stress calculations and kinematics of Quaternary structures obtained from geological studies [6, 9]. However, while Prelogović et al. [6] suggested an active longitudinal transpressive positive flower structure of the Medvednica Mountains bordered by steep divergent reverse faults, Matoš et al. [8] indicated unidirectional top-to-the-north steep reverse faults along the Medvednica Mountains as the main earthquake sources.
The Medvednica Mountains, a NE–SW-striking mountain range within the Internal Dinarides, is a marginal Pannonian inselberg located in a geotectonically interesting area where kinematic interactions of neighboring orogens are observed. The Alps and Dinarides are orogens with different subduction polarities: Adria the upper plate in the Alps versus Adria the lower plate in the Dinarides (e.g., see [10]). A complex active tectonic regime in the transitional area between the Southeastern Alps, Northwestern Dinarides and Tisza Mega-unit of the Pannonian Basin is a result of the interaction of the upper crustal tectonic blocks formed during the Mesozoic to Cenozoic evolution of the area [11]. Its present-day position and trend are explained by an eastward displacement (tectonic escape) and an approximately 130° clockwise rotation of the tectonic block comprising the Medvednica Mountains and its surrounding inselbergs during the period from the latest Paleogene to the earliest Neogene [9, 12].
Zagreb, Grad Zagreb, Hr
The Medvednica Mountains are composed of a Paleozoic to Mesozoic metamorphic core overlain by non-metamorphic Mesozoic and Cenozoic rocks ([13, 14, 15]; Figure 1a). All units are truncated by normal and reverse faults and are surrounded by the Miocene–Quaternary deposits of the Pannonian Basin.
Van Gelder et al. [11] demonstrated that the area of the Medvednica Mountains, situated near neighboring orogens with different subduction polarities, i.e., between the Alps and the Dinarides, has a complex and dual tectonic history. The zone of interference is large; not only do the structures of the Dinarides extend far into the Southern Alps, but the structures of the Eastern and Southern Alps also extend much farther into the Dinarides than previously thought. To show the structural complexity of the Medvednica Mountains, Van Gelder et al. [11] interpreted two cross-sections across the mountain (Figure 1b). The latest tectonic phase of the tectonic evolution of the Medvednica Mountains is characterized by a system of Pliocene to Quaternary southeast-dipping reverse faults (D6 faults in Figure 1b). The Northern Medvednica Boundary Fault [16] is the major fault of the system and is probably still active [8].
Systematic data collection for earthquakes in Croatia, and consequently in Zagreb, started in the 19th century with the magazine Luna (which was published in German) where earthquakes that occurred in Zagreb after 1872 were recorded. There were many earthquakes in and around Zagreb, but for those that occurred before 1880, descriptions are scarce, so the actual magnitudes of the earthquakes cannot be estimated and the locations of the epicenters are unreliable. The first comprehensive consideration of Zagreb earthquakes is in the annual reports published by M. Kišpatić in 1879 [17], which include data on all earthquakes that occurred in Zagreb from 1502 to 1879. The strongest earthquakes with epicenters around Zagreb are mentioned here, based on the “Croatian Earthquake Catalogue” (CEC; updated version first described in [18]).
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The earthquake that struck on a chilly Tuesday on 9 November 1880 at 07:03 UTC, with a magnitude of 6.3, is the strongest earthquake that occurred in the Zagreb epicentral area. Its hypocenter was in the Medvednica Mountains, close to locations of Kašina and Planina. The newspapers wrote that Zagreb had shaken, frightening people and causing two casualties [5]. According to historical records, at this time, Zagreb had slightly fewer than 30, 000 inhabitants and approximately 2500 buildings. A total of 1400 buildings were damaged or destroyed by the earthquake.
It is understandable that such a devastating earthquake caused panic among the population, especially since numerous weaker earthquakes followed, especially in the next six months. There were quite a number of people who spread alarming news, such as the idea that Zagreb was on the verge of collapse because it lies above an underground volcano; they fabricated mud volcanoes, and some observed bluish flames at the top of the Medvednica Mountains and new hot springs in Stubica.
This earthquake was not
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